Question

discuss two psychological theories explaining emotional problems with adolescent development

Answer 1

In developing lesson plans that utilize these theories, the teacher must find the overall level at which the class is functioning. For example, once Piaget’s theory is reviewed, the teacher should develop lessons which will help the students move from the concrete level of thinking, to the formal operational stage. I have included two activities in which Piaget’s theory is performed with a group of students. As you read the lesson plans based on Piaget’s theory, it is the behavioral tasks that are important not the outcome. The more advanced the adolescents performing the experiment, the more systematically they will perform the task.

Upon completion of this exercise, teachers will discover the connection between Piaget’s theory and Erickson’s psychosocial theory. In order for the adolescent to develop a sense of industry (See Erickson’s theory below for explanation), students must feel that they are academically successful in school. Therefore, when students complete “hands-on” academic tasks like those given by Piaget, they will feel good about themselves. Review of Erickson’s theory below will stress to the teacher the critical importance of identity development within the adolescent. In the lesson plans provided in this curriculum unit you will find exercises that will help children critically think about their personalities and future vocation.

Another vital aspect of adolescent psychological development includes the evolution of values through moral reasoning. Lawrence KohIberg’s theory on moral development provides valuable insight into the evolution of moral reasoning within human beings. This theory provides educators a basis for understanding how this aspect of adolescent psychological development occurs and helps to categorize the level at which the adolescent reasons.

According to KohIberg’s theory, adolescence should be provided with hypothetical dilemmas where students can explore their feelings and openly discuss their viewpoints in choosing between conflictual situations. Through their discussions, adolescents become more aware of their power to make choices and decisions about their lives. Lesson plans reflecting this theory have been included which involve two hypothetical situations which help to guide adolescent moral reasoning through group discussion. The teacher’s role in the lessons will be to act as a facilitator in encouraging the students to voice and accept opinions of others.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget dedicated most of his life’s work to understanding how children develop intellectually. His work on cognitive development is the most complete theory available today and is widely used. (Pulaski, 1970) According to Piagetian theory, children progress through four stages in their cognitive development—seriomotor (birth to two years of age), pre-operational (2 to 7 years of age), concrete operational (7 to 11 years of age) and formal operational (11 to 15 years of age). Each of these stages represent a qualitative leap forward in the child’s ability to solve problems and reason logically.

As children enter adolescence, their cognitive abilities lie somewhere between Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development—the period of concrete operational—and the fourth, or last stage—formal operational. During the concrete operational stage, children begin to understand the concept of conservation. From the Piagetian perspective, conservation means that children realize that quantities remain the same, even if they are placed in containers of different shapes and sizes. The adolescent also becomes less egocentric, that is, he now understands that everyone does not see things in the same way that he does. The adolescent also becomes capable of reasoning deductively, perform simple operations with physical objects, and apply logic to arrive at conclusions. Even though adolescents at the latter part of this stage display some cognitive maturity, they still are incapable of thinking abstractly. During this stage, things are understood concretely and literally. For example, you cannot say: “That was the straw that broke the camels back,” and expect the child to understand what you are talking about. Unrealistic math problems such as: if a dog has six legs, then how many legs will four dogs have, will result in a child arguing that a dog does not have six legs.

However, once the adolescent enters the last stage—formal operational he/she develops the ability to test hypotheses in a mature, scientific manner. They can communicate their position on complex ethical issues, and become capable of thinking abstractly. They can discuss abstract terms such as freedom or liberty without difficulty.

Although Piaget was not interested in formal teaching strategies, educators have applied Piagetian concepts to educate children. Examples of Piagetian theory being used in school includes: (1) using Piagetian tasks to determine the intellectual ability of students; (2) teaching students with cognitive levels in mind; (3) being careful to sequence instruction; (4) testing children to find the results of teaching; (5) encouraging social interaction to facilitate learning, and (6) remembering that children’s thought processes are not the same as adults.

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theories

Psychosocial theorists based the development of identity on the outcome of crises that occur during the life of a person. Psychosocial theorists define crises as times at which a person actively focuses on, and questions, aspects of his/her identity. Erickson’s psychosocial theory states that human beings develop according to a preset plan, the epigenetic principle, that consist of two main elements. First, personality develops according to a predetermined pattern that is maturationally set. Second, each society is structured to encourage challenges that arise during these times.

According to Erikson’s theory, individuals proceed through eight stages of development which begin at birth and conclude at death. If the particular crisis is handled appropriately, the outcome will be positive. If not, then a negative outcome will be the result. The two stages which involve conflicts that significantly affect early and late adolescent development are stage 4, the latency state (ages 6-11), and stage 5, puberty and adolescence (ages 12-18).

Stage four of Erikson’s theory occurs during the middle school years when children must master skills in math, reading, and writing. At that time the child is faced with the conflict of industry versus inferiority. If the child masters the skills, the child develops a sense of industry and has a positive view of the achievement. However, if a child doesn’t meet the expectations of mastering these skills and is constantly criticized, then he/she may develop a feeling of inferiority.

The fifth psychosocial stage occurs during the ages of 11-18. Adolescents begin to consider their futures and decide on careers. During this stage they face the conflict of identity versus role confusion. If the adolescent formulates a satisfying plan of action about his/her future, then the outcome is positive and establishment of identity is achieved. Adolescents who do not develop this sense of identity may develop “role confusion” and aimlessly move through life without any plan of action or sense of security about their future.

Erikson’s theory demonstrates the importance of the educator’s role in helping children establish their identity upon reaching adolescence. The child must master academic skills in order to feel positive about him/herself. In addition to monitoring skill mastery, the educator must cover the topic of career exploration, and expose the adolescence to as many career choices as possible. Should the adolescent show interest in a certain occupation, then exposure to the right vocational program or academic track is in order to help him/her successfully pursue a goal